Conclusions
This paper began with a brief review of key leadership concepts
and this literature revealed that effective leadership in an organization
is critical. Initial examinations of leaders reported the differences
between leaders and followers. These attempts to isolate specific
individual traits led to the conclusion that no single characteristic
can distinguish leaders from non-leaders. Situational leadership
revealed the complexity of leadership but still proved to be insufficient
because the theories could not predict which leadership skills would
be more effective in certain situations. The contingency models
focused on the fit between personality characteristics, leaders'
behaviors, and situational variables but did not clarify which or
what combination of these determine effective leadership. Subsequent
leadership studies differentiated effective from non-effective leaders.
The comparison of effective and non-effective leaders led to the
identification of two dimensions, initiating structures and consideration,
and revealed that effective leaders were high performers in both.
The situation approach to leadership supports the contention that
effective leaders are able to address both the tasks and human aspects
of their organizations.
Leadership continues to be recognized as a complex enterprise,
and as recent studies assert, effective leaders are more than managers.
They have vision, develop a shared vision, and value the contributions
and efforts of their co-workers in the organization. Transformational
leadership holds promise to further an understanding of effective
leadership, especially the leadership needed for changing organizations.
This synthesis also sought to examine the literature to identify
characteristics that appear to facilitate or impede the implementation
of school improvement interventions, especially those likely to
benefit at- risk students. The review of leadership literature has
led to an initial identification of the six characteristics of leaders
of educational change which are:
- having vision,
- believing that the schools are for learning,
- valuing human resources,
- being a skilled communicator and listener,
- acting proactively, and
- taking risks.
Administrators' vision tends to encompass the whole system or,
as described by Manasse (1986), their vision is an organizational
vision. Teachers' vision appears to focus primarily on the individual
or personal actions for school change. However, the two may be different
aspects of the same vision. School administrators that have developed
a shared vision with their faculty have also created common ground
that serves to facilitate or compel action to the realization of
this common vision. Underlying a shared vision are teachers' and
administrators' shared belief that schools are for students' learning.
The connection between leaders' values or beliefs and their vision
for their organizations is important.
Effective superintendents believe that students come first; effective
principals believe in meeting the instructional needs of the students.
Teachers value working with students and believe that they have
an impact on their achievement. They have the shared belief that
students' learning is of primary importance. This common ground
appears to facilitate the development of a shared vision.
The literature revealed further that these individuals' also shared
a common value. They valued the human resources -- the contributions,
talents, and efforts -- of others in their organization. The characteristic
of valuing human resources manifest in three dimensions: valuing
the contributions and efforts of co-workers, relating effectively
with others, and fostering collaboration. This characteristic of
effective leaders of school change that is connected to their ability
to communicate and listen.
The communicating and listening skills of superintendents, principals,
and teachers are the basis for their ability to articulate a vision,
develop a shared vision, express their belief that schools are for
the students' learning, and demonstrate that they value the human
resources of their peers and subordinates. Being an effective communicator
and listener is also a key component to being proactive and taking
risks.
Superintendents, principals and teachers that are effective leaders
of school change are proactive. They initiate action, anticipate
and recognize changes in their environment that will affect their
schools and districts, and challenge the status quo, the established
ways of operating, that interfere with realization of their organizations'
vision. This characteristic of being proactive merges with being
a risk taker.
Principals and superintendents that lead and guide others in school
change take risks but not carelessly or without forethought. Furthermore
they encourage others to be risk takers by providing an environment
that makes this safer. Teachers appear to be reluctant risk takers
for a variety of reasons, although current educational reform efforts
may change this aspect of teachers.
In the introduction, several uses for this paper were suggested.
For those in the throes of implementing a change, this information
can be used to:
- provide a guide for identifying in oneself and companions the
characteristics that are facilitating the innovation's implementation;
- determine which leadership characteristics are most essential
for their unique situation;
- plan professional development activities that would foster
and encourage the acquisition of these characteristics; and
- design learning activities and experiences that foster,promote,
encourage, and enhance the formation of these characteristics
in educators.
The data regarding the characteristics of leaders of educational
change may be used as a guideline for self-evaluation or for the
selection of individuals who will lead or participate in implementing
school change. However, it is anticipated that any use of these
characteristics for evaluation and selection will be accompanied
with a thorough understanding of the unique needs of a particular
school, community, or district. Finally this paper has provided
an increased focus on the types of individuals that lead educational
change.
Implications for further research
Although this paper represents an initial effort to examine the
personal characteristics of educational leaders that appear to facilitate
the implementation of school improvement interventions for at-risk
students, it has also fostered questions regarding the personal
characteristics needed of the leaders involved in these efforts.
The following questions are implications for further research.
- Do the characteristics discussed represent a composite picture
of leaders of educational change or are there other characteristics
that have not surfaced?
- Is there a unique formula for these characteristics that educators
attempting to implement an educational innovation or a systemic
change at the school or district level should seek to possess?
- Does having congruent values between a community and a superintendent
promote and encourage school improvement?
- What is the influence of leaders' values and beliefs on their
leadership skills?
- Can these characteristics be learned or are they innate? If
they can be acquired, how does this occur?
This paper represents an initial attempt to identify the characteristics
of leaders who initiate, guide, and provoke school change. Six common
characteristics were found in superintendents, principals, and teachers
who have experienced the adventure of school change. The data discussed
in this synthesis is timely considering current endeavors to restructure
districts and schools. Further research attempting to answer the
questions that have emerged from this literature review will further
our understanding of what types of individuals can lead the needed
school reforms as well as provide information on whether or not
these characteristics can be acquired throughout an educator's career.
The possibility of being able to acquire and use these characteristics
holds great promise for those participating in and leading the educational
reforms of today.
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