Language Minority Programs: A Primer

Most people don’t realize that the United States Constitution was almost written in German. When this idea was rejected, the drafters of the Constitution discussed a compromise of developing both German and English versions. Although the final decision was to draft the Constitution in English, this historical snapshot is just one example of how other languages have played and continue to play a significant role in our country. Today, U.S. residents whose primary language is a language other than English are often seen as being outside of mainstream culture. However, these people and their languages are a vital part of our nation’s culture, and programs specifically geared toward the needs of language minority students are essential in ensuring they receive a high-quality education.

A Brief History

The debate surrounding bilingual education is complicated, reflecting a wide spectrum of political and social influences, many of which began with the passage of the Bilingual Education Act of 1968. Prior to this act, language minority students were often left to sink or swim in an environment of total English submersion where students were not given any support or instruction in their primary language. The 1968 act "brought an exciting yet controversial approach to educating language minority students to the attention of educators throughout the United States," note Carlos Ovando and Virginia Collier in Bilingual and ESL Classrooms: Teaching in Multicultural Contexts (1998). They also note that "Educators and linguists in the area of English as a second language (ESL) had developed a substantial knowledge base in their field, since at least the early 1800s." In spite of a long tradition of ESL and bilingual education in the United States, it was not until the early 1970s that the government sponsored a widespread approach to educating language minority students that provided an alternative to the sink-or-swim approach. Over the past 25 years, bilingual and ESL programs have made significant advances in meeting the needs of an increasingly diverse population.

Recent events indicate another shift for bilingual education however. In 1998, Californians voted to eliminate bilingual education, choosing instead to provide only one year of intensive English-language instruction for language minority students. Although the California proposition bans bilingual education in the state, several larger districts (San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose) obtained waivers to continue their bilingual programs, just one indicator that many feel these programs are well worth supporting.

The events in California may foreshadow difficulties for other bilingual education programs in the United States and intensify the debate over bilingual education. A discussion of the issues requires at least a basic understanding of the types of programs currently being offered in many schools.

An Overview of Language Minority Programs

The terms referring to language minority programs can be confusing, especially since usage and intent of meaning are not always consistent. Joel Dworin, a program associate at SEDL who has worked extensively with bilingual programs in a variety of settings comments, "People use terms in multiple ways. When someone says to me, ‘Hey, we have a great bilingual program,’ there may be a mismatch in our understanding of what bilingual education means." These mismatches result from the variety and diversity of programs that serve linguistically and culturally diverse students. Each program’s scope and goals are determined by different demographic, political, and emotional climates. Although there is much variation in language minority programs, there are some common characteristics that define them.

English as a Second Language or ESL Programs provide instruction in English to English language learners, both for students to learn English and other academic subjects. ESL programs are typically used in schools with a small or a very diverse population of language minority students (that is, the students at the school are from a wide variety of language backgrounds). Teachers do not have to be proficient in the home language(s) of their students to teach ESL. Like all students, ESL students must be challenged in order to be successful.

Bilingual Programs are frequently found in schools or districts with large numbers of students who have the same language background. Teachers instruct in both the student’s home language and English, with the amount of time spent teaching in each language varying from program to program. Teachers must be proficient in both languages. Bilingual programs are frequently classified as early-exit (1-3 years before mainstreaming students) or late-exit (typically 4-6 years). Late-exit programs have the benefit of continued development of the primary language over an extended period, allowing students to use their native language as a base for understanding other academic subjects. It can be difficult for a student to learn a new math concept in a second language and the native language is often more conducive to developing a conceptual framework.

Also, many people do not realize that some bilingual programs have native English speakers in them, allowing these students to develop academically while they learn a new language. Dworin observes, "Unfortunately, historically — and even today — these programs have often been designed as ‘remedial’ programs, not geared toward ‘enrichment.’" Dworin also notes that all well-implemented bilingual programs have a component of ESL.

In another type of bilingual program, Dual-Immersion or Two-Way Programs, native English speakers are grouped with native speakers of another language, with language and other content-area instruction being provided in both English and another language. Students typically stay in dual-immersion programs throughout elementary school, with most of these programs promoting bilingualism and biliteracy for all the students. Classes can be taught by a single teacher who is proficient in both languages or by two teachers, one of whom is bilingual. Almost all dual-immersion programs divide the classroom 50-50 between English-speaking students and language minority students. There is some variance in how much time is spent using each language in the classroom, with many programs consistently dividing their instructional time equally among the two languages and other programs using the minority language 90 percent and English 10 percent of the time at the outset, gradually moving closer to using both equally in the later years of the program.

During the past 10 years, the number of programs for language minority students has grown significantly. "More than 90 percent of programs in schools today are early-exit bilingual programs, but the number of dual-immersion programs has risen dramatically over the past 20 years. In 1980, there were approximately 20 dual-immersion programs in the United States; in 2000, there are well over 250 programs," says Dworin, referring to research from the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL).

Characteristics of Effective Programs

Although programs for language minority students differ considerably from each other depending on the demographic makeup of the school or district and the goals for the program, there are some elements common among successful programs (Rennie 1993). In fact, these elements are universally important in any educational setting; here, they are discussed in the context of bilingual and ESL education.

• Support for programs from district, principals, and other teachers in school
  "Support from the district is crucial," comments Dworin. School districts can help ensure the effectiveness of these programs by providing resources (including time for staff development), allowing schools flexibility in establishing and running the programs, and advocating for the programs through both policies and actions. On the school level, support from all staff members helps establish whole-school contexts for these programs. According to Dworin, "It is important for teachers, staff, and principals to be able to explain the bilingual program at a school to parents and others so they will in turn support it." He also feels it is essential for bilingual/ESL teachers to know how and why they teach the way they do: "Teachers and principals need to have a unity of purpose and a consistency in the quality and type of instruction" that align with the vision of the school.
• High-quality professional development for ALL teachers
  Intensive, sustained, quality professional development is particularly important for teachers of English language learners. Many of these teachers deal with unique and challenging issues, and professional development is vital to their success in the classroom. Staff development focusing on these issues should not be limited to language minority teachers though. Almost every teacher will encounter English language learners in the classroom at some point, and skills and knowledge about meeting the needs of those students are relevant for all teachers. Dworin notes that a schoolwide approach to professional development in this area provides social and academic support for school staff involved in language minority programs, ensuring that they are seen as an integral part of the school community, not as an isolated group of "specialty" teachers.
• Teachers who are qualified and prepared
  It can be especially difficult to find teachers with the skills and qualifications needed to teach in a successful bilingual or dual-immersion program. Not only must these teachers have fluency in both English and the language minority, they must have academic proficiency, allowing them to effectively communicate concepts about science, math, history, and other subjects to their students. "If you think about it, just because someone can speak English doesn’t make them qualified to teach English," says Dworin. Teacher preparation programs have a long way to go in this area, although some are beginning to integrate skills specific to language minority cultures into their programs. "An example is Arizona State University, which requires every elementary teacher in its program to minor in ESL," Dworin notes, "It’s a small step, but an important one. It indicates a serious commitment to addressing this issue."
• Materials, resources, and preparation time for language minority teachers
  Teachers are faced with significant challenges in obtaining quality resources in language minorities. There is a dearth of instructional materials available for language minority classes. Many teachers end up creating their own materials or adapting them from English-language resources, frequently a difficult and time-consuming task. Also, it is crucial to find classroom resources that reflect the students’ culture(s) and values. "Students need to see themselves in the curriculum and not just in a token way," Dworin comments.
• High expectations for language minority students
  The goals and expectations established at the outset for students in a language minority program have a significant impact on how well those students learn. Many programs are not successful largely because they fail to set the bar high enough. Unfortunately, this has frequently been a result of assumptions about language minority students’ capacity to learn, often related to biases about socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity. Many educators, regardless of their backgrounds, have viewed these programs as "remedial," effectively limiting the academic opportunities for their students. The Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence (CREDE) has conducted extensive research showing that too many language minority students "are not challenged with the same content as mainstream children. . . . As a result, such schools hold neither themselves nor their students to high standards, and this in itself constitutes an additional risk factor" for them. (Tharp 1997).
• Involvement of minority parents
  The support of the parents and other community members is vital in ensuring the program will thrive. Support can come in many forms, but perhaps the most important indicator of support is simply the continued presence of the students in the classroom. In addition to ensuring buy-in for the program, connecting with parents and community members provides greater insight into the students. "It may seem very obvious, but there is real value in teachers getting to know the students, their families, and their communities," Dworin observes. "You don’t have to be a part of that community to do that — it just takes a sustained, concerted effort and a willingness on the part of the teacher to become a learner, embracing a truly multicultural approach in which the teacher educates himself or herself about the culture."

With so much information available about these programs, this article can only scratch the surface of the topic. There are many resources available in print and on-line that discuss the various types of bilingual programs and the issues surrounding them in greater detail (see box below). With the help of well-designed and effectively implemented language minority programs, students from diverse language backgrounds can make the most of their educational opportunities and, through their language and culture, enrich educational opportunities for others.

References

• Ovando, C. J., & Collier, V. P. (1998). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teaching in multicultural contexts. (2nd ed.) Boston: McGraw-Hill.
• Rennie, J. (September 1993). ESL and Bilingual Program Models [on-line]. (ERIC Digest Series Number ED410). Available: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/rennie01.html
• Tharp, R. G. (1997). From at-risk to excellence: Research, theory, and principles for practice [on-line]. Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity, & Excellence (CREDE). Available: http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=ED409717

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